ABSTRACT
Extensive studies have shown that breast milk is the best source of nutrition for infants, especially during the first six months, because it fulfills almost all of their nutritional needs. Among the many functional building blocks in breast milk, human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) have been receiving more attention recently. Furthermore, it is the third most common group of compounds in human milk, and studies have demonstrated the health benefits it provides for infants, including improved nutritional status. HMOs were previously known as the ‘bifidus factor’ due to their ‘bifidogenic’ or prebiotic effects, which enabled the nourishment of the gastrointestinal microbiota. Healthy gastrointestinal microbiota are intestinal health substrates that increase nutrient absorption and reduce the incidence of diarrhea. In addition, HMOs, directly and indirectly, protect infants against infections and strengthen their immune system, leading to a positive energy balance and promoting normal growth. Non-modifiable factors, such as genetics, and modifiable factors (e.g., maternal health, diet, nutritional status, environment) can influence the HMO profile. This review provides an overview of the current understanding of how HMOs can contribute to the prevention and treatment of nutritional issues during exclusive breastfeeding.
ABSTRACT
@# Introduction: Studies on the development and validation of semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaires (SQ-FFQ) for assessing omega-3 (Ω-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) intake by pregnant women are few. This study aimed to determine the validity of a newly developed SQ-FFQ for assessing the LC-PUFA intake among Indonesian urban pregnant women. Methods: A cross- sectional study was carried out in 2015 on 100 Indonesian pregnant women who were in their late 3rd trimester, living in the urban setting of Jakarta. As a test tool, the SQ-FFQ was administered before the trained nutritionists executed the reference tool of non-consecutive two-day 24-hour dietary recalls (2DRs). The nutrients of interest were a total of Ω-3, eicosapentanoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), total Ω-6, linoleic acid (LA), arachidonic acid (AA), and LC-PUFAs. Statistical correlation, cross-classification and the Bland-Altman plot analysis were done to determine the agreement between tools. Results: Energy-adjusted correlation coefficients between SQ-FFQ and 2DRs were 0.385, 0.349, 0.352, 0.380, 0.338, 0.408, 0.409, 0.331, 0.341 and 0.341 for fat, total Ω-3, ALA, EPA, DHA, total Ω-6, LA, AA and LC-PUFAs, respectively and were statistically significant (p<0.05). Misclassification of these nutrients from SQ-FFQ and 2DRs was <6%. The Bland-Altman plots showed most of the points fell within the 95% limits of acceptable agreement for DHA, EPA, and LA. Conclusion: The newly developed SQ-FFQ of this study is a valid instrument for assessing of Ω-3 LC-PUFAs intake among Indonesian pregnant women living in urban area. Its further validation with relevant biomarkers is recommended.